Communism:
Communism is the doctrine of the conditions of the liberation of the proletariat.

Proletariat:
The proletariat is that class in society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor -- hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.
[In their works written in later periods, Marx and Engels substituted the more accurate concepts of "sale of labour power", "value of labour power" and "price of labour power" (first introduced by Marx) for "sale of labour", value of labour" and "price of labour", as used here.]

Proletarians:
No. There have always been poor and working classes; and the working class have mostly been poor. But there have not always been workers and poor people living under conditions as they are today; in other words, there have not always been proletarians, any more than there has always been free unbridled competitions.

proletariat originate?
The Proletariat originated in the industrial revolution, which took place in England in the last half of the last (18th) century, and which has since then been repeated in all the civilized countries of the world.
This industrial revolution was precipitated by the discovery of the steam engine, various spinning machines, the mechanical loom, and a whole series of other mechanical devices. These machines, which were very expensive and hence could be bought only by big capitalists, altered the whole mode of production and displaced the former workers, because the machines turned out cheaper and better commodities than the workers could produce with their inefficient spinning wheels and handlooms. The machines delivered industry wholly into the hands of the big capitalists and rendered entirely worthless the meagre property of the workers (tools, looms, etc.). The result was that the capitalists soon had everything in their hands and nothing remained to the workers. This marked the introduction of the factory system into the textile industry.

Once the impulse to the introduction of machinery and the factory system had been given, this system spread quickly to all other branches of industry, especially cloth- and book-printing, pottery, and the metal industries.

Labor was more and more divided among the individual workers so that the worker who previously had done a complete piece of work now did only a part of that piece. This division of labor made it possible to produce things faster and cheaper. It reduced the activity of the individual worker to simple, endlessly repeated mechanical motions which could be performed not only as well but much better by a machine. In this way, all these industries fell, one after another, under the dominance of steam, machinery, and the factory system, just as spinning and weaving had already done.

But at the same time, they also fell into the hands of big capitalists, and their workers were deprived of whatever independence remained to them. Gradually, not only genuine manufacture but also handicrafts came within the province of the factory system as big capitalists increasingly displaced the small master craftsmen by setting up huge workshops, which saved many expenses and permitted an elaborate division of labor.

This is how it has come about that in civilized countries at the present time nearly all kinds of labor are performed in factories -- and, in nearly all branches of work, handicrafts and manufacture have been superseded. This process has, to an ever greater degree, ruined the old middle class, especially the small handicraftsmen; it has entirely transformed the condition of the workers; and two new classes have been created which are gradually swallowing up all the others. These are:

(i) The class of big capitalists, who, in all civilized countries, are already in almost exclusive possession of all the means of subsistance and of the instruments (machines, factories) and materials necessary for the production of the means of subsistence. This is the bourgeois class, or the bourgeoisie.

(ii) The class of the wholly propertyless, who are obliged to sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to get, in exchange, the means of subsistence for their support. This is called the class of proletarians, or the proletariat.

Labor is a commodity, like any other, and its price is therefore determined by exactly the same laws that apply to other commodities. In a regime of big industry or of free competition -- as we shall see, the two come to the same thing -- the price of a commodity is, on the average, always equal to its cost of production. Hence, the price of labor is also equal to the cost of production of labor.

But, the costs of production of labor consist of precisely the quantity of means of subsistence necessary to enable the worker to continue working, and to prevent the working class from dying out. The worker will therefore get no more for his labor than is necessary for this purpose; the price of labor, or the wage, will, in other words, be the lowest, the minimum, required for the maintenance of life.
However, since business is sometimes better and sometimes worse, it follows that the worker sometimes gets more and sometimes gets less for his commodities. But, again, just as the industrialist, on the average of good times and bad, gets no more and no less for his commodities than what they cost, similarly on the average the worker gets no more and no less than his minimum.

This economic law of wages operates the more strictly the greater the degree to which big industry has taken possession of all branches of production.

INDIAN HISTORY

Overview:

India's history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. Beginning with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of india is one puncuated by constant integration with migrating peoples and with the diverse cultures that surround India. Gateway Of India Placed in the center of Asia, history in india is a crossroads of cultures from China to Europe, and the most significant Asian connection with the cultures of Africa.
India's history is more than just a set of unique developments in a definable process; it is, in many ways, a microcosm of human history itself, a diversity of cultures all impinging on a great people and being reforged into new, syncretic forms. IndHistory.com brings you the india's history starting from ancient history of india to modern indian history. Shown below is the india timeline starting from 3000 BC of ancient indus valley civilization and harappa civilization to 1000 AD of Chola Dynasty of ancient history of india.

Indian History in Short :

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization in such sites as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal, and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic perio ds. It is in the Vedic period that Hinduism first arose: this is the time to which the Vedas are dated.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to o ther parts of Asia. It is in the reign of the Mauryas that Hinduism took the shape that fundamentally informs the religion down to the present day. Successor states were more fragmented.

Indian history dates back to 3000 BC. Excavations in Punjab and Gujarat reveal that the Indus Valley civilisation was a highly developed urban civilisation. In fact the two cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, situated on two sides of the river Ravi, are known to have been built on a similar plan. But that only meant a new wave of urbanisation was taking place along the Ganges around 1500 BC. This has been recorded in the Rig Veda - the earliest known literary source composed in this period that sheds light on India's past.

The Muslim Invasions :

The first Muslim invasions of the country started with the Mahmud of Gazni, who plundered the sub-continent for its riches between 1001 and 1025. Later Mohamed Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, the Tomar ruler of Delhi and left it in charge of his deputy, Qutub-ud-din, the man who built the Qutub Minar in Delhi. His rule was followed by that of the Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties. Known as the Sultanate of Delhi, it was during this period that the Muslim rulers introduced Islamic concepts of society and governance to most of the sub-continent, though the South remained largely untouched.

In 1525, Babur, a descendant of Timur, as well as Genghis Khan invaded Punjab and eventually founded the Mughal empire in India. His rule was followed by that of his son Humayun. Humayun was ousted by Afghan chieftain Sher Shah but resumed power after Sher Shah's death. Sher Shah is, however, remembered as the one to build the Grand Trunk road spanning from Peshawar to Howrah. Humayun's reign was followed up by his son Akbar who actually consolidated power and extended the empire across North India and parts of South India. One of India's wisest rulers and most able administrators, Akbar's reign is considered to be one of the best the country has known. Akbar was succeeded by Jahangir, followed by his son Shah Jahan - best known as the builder of the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid. Shah Jahan's reign was followed by Aurangzeb's. The death of Aurangzeb saw the decline of the Mughal rule in India.

Towards Independence:

The disintegration of the Mughal empire, fighting among the Maratha rulers and inability of the various rulers across the country to unite against a common enemy saw the British consolidate their position in the country. However, the 19th century saw a revival of national pride and social reform and the Indians began to tire of the suppressive British rule. Things reached a flash point in the second half of the 19th century when the first war of independence in 1857 broke out in Meerut. It was sparked off by the introduction of a new rifle and cartridge by the British in the Army. The cartridges which soldiers had to bite off, allegedly contained pork and beef tallow, which offended the religious sentiments of both Hindus and Muslims. The soldiers rebelled, reached Delhi and proclaimed Bahadurshah Zafar the sovereign ruler of India. They were eventually overpowered by the British.

But there was no looking back for the Indians who wanted social reform and freedom. The Indian National Congress was set up and educated Indians started formulating strategies to assert their birthright to independence. The anti-British sentiment became a mass movement with the arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who devised a unique strategy for India's freedom struggle based on non-violence and civil disobedience. He conceived and led the non-cooperation movement in 1922, the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942. All of which pushed the British into agreeing to transfer power on August 15, 1947, the day that is now celebrated as India's Independence Day. Today, India is the world's largest democracy with a federal form of government.

courtesy: incridible india! & history of india

HARD DISK

What Is a Hard Disk?

A hard disk or drive is the part of your computer responsible for long-term storage of
Information. Unlike volatile memory (often referred to as RAM) which loses it’s stored
Information once its power supply is shut off, a hard disk stores information permanently,
Allowing you to save programs, files, and other data. Hard disks also have much greater
Storage capacities than RAM; in fact, current hard disks may contain over 1TB of
Storage space.

Basic components of a Hard Disk

A hard disk is comprised of four basic parts: platters, a spindle, read/write heads, and
Integrated electronics.

• Platters are rigid disks made of metal or plastic. Both sides of each platter are
Covered with a thin layer of iron oxide or other magnetizable material.

• The platters are mounted on a central axle or spindle, which rotates all the platters at
The same speed.

• Read/write heads are mounted on arms that extend over both top and bottom
Surfaces of each disk. There is at least one read/write head for each side of each
Platter. The arms jointly move back and forth between the platters’ centers and
Outside edges; this movement, along with the platters’ rotation, allows the read/write
Heads to access all areas of the platters.

• The integrated electronics translate commands from the computer and move the
Read/write heads to specific areas of the platters, thus reading and/or writing the
Needed data.

How Is Data Stored and Retrieved?

Computers record data on hard disks as a series of binary bits. Each bit is stored as a
Magnetic charge (positive or negative) on the oxide coating of a disk platter. When a computer saves data; it sends the data to the hard disk as a series of bits. As the
Disk receives the bits, it uses the read/write heads to magnetically record or “write” the
Bits on the platters. Data bits are not necessarily stored in succession.

The read/write heads can access any area of the platters at any time, allowing data to be
Accessed randomly (rather than sequentially, as with a magnetic tape). Because hard disks
Are capable of random access, they can typically access any data within a few millionths
Of a second.

What Is Disk Formatting?

Computers must be able to access needed information on command; however, even the
Smallest hard disk can store millions and millions of bits. How does the computer know?
Where to look for the information it needs? To solve this problem, hard disks are
Organized into discrete, identifiable divisions, thus allowing the computer to easily find
Any particular sequence of bits.

The most basic form of disk organization is called formatting. Formatting prepares the
Hard disk so that files can be written to the platters and then quickly retrieved when
Needed. Hard disks must be formatted in two ways: physically and logically.

1.Physical Formatting :

A hard disk must be physically formatted before it can be logically formatted. A hard
Disk’s physical formatting (also called low-level formatting) is usually performed by the
Manufacturer. Physical formatting divides the hard disk’s platters into their basic physical elements: Tracks, sectors, and cylinders. See Figure 2. These elements define the way in which data Is physically recorded on and read from the disk.

2.Logical Formatting:

After a hard disk has been physically formatted, it must also be logically formatted.
Logical formatting places a file system on the disk, allowing an operating system (such as
DOS, OS/2, Windows, or Linux) to use the available disk space to store and retrieve files.
Different operating systems (OS) use different file systems, so the type of logical
formatting you apply depends on the OS you plan to install.

File Systems:

All file systems consist of structures necessary for storing and managing data. Some of the most common File systems are the following:
• File Allocation Table (FAT)
• File Allocation Table 32 (FAT32)
• New Technology File System (NTFS)
• High Performance File System (HPFS)
• NetWare File System
• Linux Ext2 and Linux Swap