COMPUTER ORIENTED ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

This week" A"
A...

AA -------Auto Answer
AAB ------- All-to-All Broadcast
AAL ------- Asynchronous Transfer Mode Adaption Layer
AAP ------- Applications Access Point [DEC]
AAS ------- All-to-All Scatter
AASP ------- ASCII Asynchronous Support Package
AAT ------- Average Access Time
ABC ------- * Atanasoff-Berry Computer (First digital
calculating machine that used vacuum tubes)
ABEND ------- Abnormal End
ABI ------- Application Binary Interface
ABIOS ------- Advanced BIOS
ABIST -------Automatic Built-In Self-Test [IBM]
ABLE ------- Adaptive Battery Life Extender
ABR ------- Available Bit Rate
ABRS ------- Automated Book Request System [British Library]
ABS ------- Address Book Synchronization [IBM] + Absolute
ABT ------- Abort
ABTS ------- ASCII Block Terminal Services
AC -------Autocheck + Automatic Computer + Alternating Current
ACAP ------- Application Configuration Access Protocol
ACC -------Accumulator
ACD ------- Automatic Call Distribution
ACDI ------- Asynchronous Communications Device Interface
ACE ------- Access Control Entry +
Advanced Computing Environment [SCO] +
Adverse Channel Enhancements [Microcom] +
* Automatic Computing Engine
ACF ------- Access Control Field +
Advanced Communications Function
ACH ------- Automated Clearing House
ACIAS ------- Automated Calibration Interval Analysis System
ACIS ------- American Committee for Interoperable Systems
ACK ------- Acknowledgment
ACL ------- Access Control List
ACM ------- Association for Computing Machinery
Audio Compression Manager [Microsoft]
ACMS ------- Application Control Management System
ACP ------- Ancillary Control Program + Auxilary Control Process
ACPI ------- Advanced Configuration Power Interface
ACROSS ------- Automated Cargo Release and Operations
Service System
ACS ------- Access + Access Control Set +
Access Control System +
* Advanced Computer System [IBM] +
Asynchronous Communication Server
ACTS ------- Automated Computer Time Service
ACTT ------- Advanced Communication and Timekeeping
Technology [Seiko]
ACU ------- Automatic Calling Unit
A/D ------- Analog to Digital
ADA ------- Automatic Data Acquisitions + Programming
Language named after Augusta Ada Lovelace)
ADB ------- Apple Desktop Bus
ADC ------- Adaptive Data Compression (protocol) [Hayes] +
Add with Carry + Analog to Digital Converter
ADCCP ------- Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures
ADD ------- Automatic Document Detection [WordPerfect]
ADF ------- Automatic Document Feeder +
Automatically Defined Function
.ADF------- Adapter Description File (file name extension)
ADI ------- AutoCad/AutoDesk Device Interface (driver)
ADL ------- Address Data Latch
ADLAT ------- Adaptive Lattice Filter
ADLC ------- Adaptive Lossless Data Compression [IBM] +
Asynchronous Data Link Control
ADMACS------- Apple Document Mangagement And Conrol System
ADMD------- Administrative Management Domain [X.400]
.ADN ------- Add In Utility (file name extension)
[Lotus 1-2-3] [LDC]
ADO ------- Active Data Objects
ADP ------- Automatic Data Processing
ADPCM ------- Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
ADR ------- Address
ADS ------- Application Development Solutions [AT&T] +
Application Development System +
Automatic Distribution System
ADSC ------- Address Status Changed +
Adobe Document Structuring Conventions
ADSL ------- Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ADSP ------- Apple Datastream Protocol
ADSR------- Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release
ADT ------- Abstract Data Type + Application Data Types
ADU ------- Automatic Dialing Unit
AE ------- Above or Equal
AEB ------- Analog Expansion Bus [Dialogic]
AF ------- Auxiliary carry Flag
AFA ------- Accelerated File Access
AFC ------- Automatic Font Change + Automatic Frequency Control
AFD ------- Automatic File Distribution
AFDW ------- Active Framework for Data Warehousing [Microsoft]
AFII ------- Association for Font Information Interchange
AFIRM------- Automated Fingerprint Image Reporting and Match
AFIS ------- Automated Fingerprint Identification System
.AFM ------- Adobe Font Metrics (file name extension) [Adobe Systems]
AFP -------Advanced Function Presentation [IBM] +
Appletalk Filing Protocol [Macintosh]
AFS ------- Andrew File System (protocols)
AFTP ------- Anonymous File Transfer Protocol
AGC ------- Automatic Gain Control
AGP ------- Accelerated/Advanced Graphics Port
AGRAS ------- Antiglare-Antireflective-Antistatic
AGU ------- Address-Generation Unit
AHS ------- Automated Highway Systems
AI------- Analog Input + Artificial Intelligence
AIA -------Applications Integration Architecture [DEC]
AIC -------AIXwindows Interface Composer [IBM]
AIF ------- Audio Interchange Format
AIIM ------- Association for Information and Image Management
AIN ------- Advanced Intelligent Network [Bell Atlantic]
AIS ------- Automated Identification System [NCIC]
AISB ------- Association of Imaging Service Bureaus
AISP -------Association of Information Systems Professionals
AIT ------- Advanced Intelligent Tape [Sony]
AIX -------Advanced Interactive Executive [IBM]
ALC -------Arithmetic and Logic Circuits +
Automatic Level Control
ALE ------- Address Latch Enable +
Application Linking and Embedding
ALGOL ------- Algorithmic Oriented Language (see IAL)
ALIBI -------Adaptive Location of Internetworked Bases
of Information
ALINK ------- Active Link [HTML]
ALIWEB ------- Archie Like Indexing in the Web [Internet]
ALN ------- Asynchronous Learning Network
ALR ------- Advanced Logic Research, Inc.
ALT ------- Alternate (mode)
ALT. ------- Alternate lifestyle [USENET Newsgroup Category]
ALU ------- Arithmetic Logic Unit
AMA ------- Automatic Message Accounting
AMANDDA -------Automated Messaging and Directory Assistance
AMD ------- Active Matrix Display +
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
AMI -------American Megatrends, Inc.
AMMA -------Advanced Memory Management Architecture
[Everex Systems]
AMPS ------- Advanced Mobile Phone Service
ANCOVA ------- Analysis of Covariance
ANDF ------- Architecture-Neutral Distribution Format
ANI ------- Automatic Number Identification
.ANI ------- Animated Cursor (file name extension) [Microsoft]
ANN ------- Artificial Neural Network
.ANN ------- Annotations (file name extension) [IBM]
ANOVA ------- Analysis Of Variance
ANSI------- American National Standards Institute
ANX ------- Automotive Network Exchange [Chrysler/Ford/General Motors]
AO ------- Analog Output
AOCE ------- Apple Open Collaboration Environment
AOE ------- Application Operating Environment [AT&T]
AOL ------- America Online
AOS ------- Add Or Subtract
AP ------- Adjunct Processor + Application Processor
A/P ------- Accounts Payable
APA ------- Adaptive Packet Assembly +
All Points Addressable +
Arithmetic Processing Accelerator
APAR ------- Authorized Program Analysis Report [IBM]
APAREN -------Address Parity Enable [IBM]
APCUG ------- Association of PC User Groups
API Application Program Interface
APIC Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (bus) [Intel]
APIS ------- Advanced Passenger Information System
APL------- * A Programming Language (Mathematics)
APM Advanced Power Management [IBM]
APOP Authenticated Post Office Protocol
.APP ------- Application (file name extension) [R:Base]
APPC ------- Advanced Program-to-Program Communications [IBM]
APPI Advanced Peer-to-Peer Internetworking
APPN Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking [IBM]
APPS Applications
APRP Adaptive Pattern Recognition Processing
APS Advanced Photo System + Advanced Printing Service [IBM]
Asynchronous Protocol Specification
APSE ADA Programming Support Environment
APT Address Pass Through +
Advanced Parallel Technology +
Automatically Programmed Tools
A/R Accounts Receivable
ARA AppleTalk Remote Access
ARAG Antireflective-Antiglare
ARAS Antireflective-Antistatic
.ARC Archive (file name extension)
ARCA Advanced RISC Computing Architecture
ARCnet Attached Resource Computer Network
.ARJ Compressed File (file name extension) [Jung]
ARL Adjusted Ring Length
ARLL Advanced Run Length Limited
ARM Advanced RISC Machine (processor) +
Annotated Reference Manual +
Asynchronous Response Mode
ARMA Association of Records Managers and Administrators
ARP Address Resolution Protocol [Novell]
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
ARPL Adjust Requested Privilege Level
ARTA Apple Real Time Architecture
ARTIC A Real-Time Interface Coprocessor [IBM]
ARTS Asynchronous Remote Takeover Server
.ARTS Cultual Groups (Domain Name) [Internet]
ARTT Asynchronous Remote Takeover Terminal
ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
ARU Audio Response Unit
AS Autonomous System [Internet]
ASAI Adjunct Switch Application Interface [AT&T]
ASAP As Soon As Possible +
Automatic Switching And Processing
AS3AP ANSI SQL Standard Scalable and Portable
.ASC ASCII text (file name extension)
ASCC * Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator [IBM]
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASF Active Streaming Format [Microsoft]
ASIC Application-Specific Integrated Circuit
ASIT Advanced Security and Identification Technology
ASL Adaptive Speed Levelling
ASLM Apple Shared Library Manager [Macintosh]
.ASM Assembler Source Language (file name extension)
ASMP Asymmetric Multprocessing
ASN Abstract Syntax Notation + Autonomous System Number
ASO Automated Systems Operations
ASP Active Server Page [Microsoft] +
Authorized Service Provider +
Association of Shareware Professionals
.ASP Active Server Page (file name extension)
ASPI Advanced SCSI Programming Interface [Adaptec]
ASPS Advanced Signal Processing System
ASR Address Space Register + Automatic Send-Receive +
Automatic Speech Recognition
AST AST Research, Inc. (named from first initials of
the founders: Albert Wong, Safi Qureshey, Thomas Yuen)
AS/U Advanced Server for Unix
ASYNC Asynchronous
AS/400 Application System/400 [IBM]
AT Advanced Technology + Attention
ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
ATDP Attention Dial Pulse
ATDT Attention Dial Tone
ATE Automated Test Equipment
ATG Advanced Technology Group
ATH Attention Hang-Up (Modem command)
ATL Active Template Library
ATM Adobe Typeface Manager + Asynchronous Transfer Mode +
Automated Teller Machine
ATPS AppleTalk Printing Services [Macintosh]
ATR Automatic Terminal Recognition
ATS Administrative Terminal System +
Apple Terminal Services
AT&T American Telephone and Telegraph
ATTN Attention
ATTRIB Attribute (also ATR)
ATZ Attention Restore configuration profile from
nonvolatile RAM (Modem command)
.AU Audio (file name extension)
AUDIT Automated Data Input Terminal
AUI Attachment/Autonomous Unit Interface
AUP Acceptable Use Policy [Internet]
AUTO Automatic
AUTOEXEC Automatic Execution
AUX ------- Auxiliary + (First Serial Port)
AV -------Audio/Video + Audiovisual + Authenticity Verification
AVA ------- Audio Visual Authoring [IBM]
AVC ------- Audio Visual Connection [IBM]
AVD ------- Alternating Voice and Data
AVG ------- Average
AVI ------- Audio Visual Interleave [Microsoft]
AVR ------- Automatic Voice Recognition
AVT ------- Applied Voice Technology
AWG------- American Wire Gage
AWK ------- (Unix language named after its authors...
Al Aho, Peter Weinberger and Brian Kernighan)
AWS ------- Advanced Workstations and Systems (group) [IBM]
AWT------- Abstract Window Toolkit [Java]
AX ------- Architecture Extended + Automatic Transmission

make money with google

Do you want to make money quick? In this article we are going to talk about one of the quickest ways you can make money. Making money quick is not only possible there are people doing it everyday with Google Adsense. Google AdSense delivers text and image ads that match the content on your website. These are very targeted ads that you can choose the size and color of and they come across to your customer as helpful more than an ad itself. Google Ads require virtually no maintenance and they help you put advertising on your website without actually having to deal with advertisers yourself. If you can copy and paste a small code you can have targeted advertising on your website in minutes. Adsense is simple to join and it is free to join. Whether you are an internet newbie or a veteran you can profit quickly by placing Google Adsense ads on your web pages. Since Google does all of the work by finding the most profitable ads for your pages you can do what you do best....provide good content and lots of it. The more web pages you create the quicker you will be making money. You can learn more here: https://www.google.com/adsense/ Once you have joined Google Adsense you will want to combine Google search with AdSense to monetize more of your web pages. You can do this by placing a Google search box on your pages. Google AdSense combines Google's search technology with thousands of keyword advertisers to deliver targeted text-based ads to search result pages. People find these ads useful and click on them, and when they do, Google pays you. You can see an example of how this works right here on this web page. In fact we combine Google search and Google Adsense on almost every website and web pages we create. We have found it a very easy way to make money quick and to make money over and over. It's great. The internet offers many ways to make money quick. The nice thing about Google Adsense is you have the largest search engine in the world doing your advertising for you. This truely allows you to make money quickly and you can do it over and over with as many products as you want. About the author:Team-Schuman.com contains the best of everything you need to make money online. Their make money quick website contains links to the Top 10 webites to help you make money quickly on the internet

Working with Affiliate program

Everywhere you look you see affiliate program offers forevery product or service that you can think of. Some havefully automated systems that sell high volumes of hardproducts all over the world. In case you don't know, "hard"products are those that you can touch...unlike an ebook ordownloadable web template. Many affiliate programs haveseveral thousand affiliates and one or two of the biggercompanies have over one million affiliates.

What are the advantages of joining an affiliate program?

They provide a ready-made business. This is a very big plusfor those people who want to earn some kind of living offthe Internet but lack the knowledge or inclination to set upa business by themselves.
Commissions and rewards are generally good, and the moreestablished programs offer a real chance of advancement tohigher and better-paid levels.
Other affiliates are usually on hand to offer practicalsupport.

What are the limitations?

You are restricted in your promotional activities due to thefact that you do not actually own the affiliate site theygive you. You won't be able to put such things as banners,images, links, meta tags, etc. onto your page.The URL of your affiliate page is often either too long orcontains such awkward things as question marks, which manySearch Engines will not index.

Interview Questions!

1. Tell me about yourself:
The most often asked question in interviews. Your answer may
reflect your resume. You have a short statement prepared about
your self. Be careful that it does not sound rehearsed. Talk about
things you have done and jobs you have held that relate to the
position you are interviewing for. Start with the item farthest back
and work up to the present. Fresher also tell about your mini project
if you had done.

2. Tell about your strength and weakness?
You may speak about your success, what are the strategy you could
followed for this success, then about your weakness this answer may
easy to overcome able in real life.

3. What experience do you have in this field?
Speak about specifics that relate to the position you are applying for.
If you do not haveSpecific experience, get as close as you can.

4. Do you consider yourself successful?
You should always answer yes and briefly explain why. A good
explanation is that you have Set goals, and you have met some
and are on track to achieve the others.

5.What do you know about this organization?
This question is one reason to do some research on the organization
before the interview. Find out where they have been and where they
are going. What are the current issues and Who are the major players?

6. Are you applying for other jobs?
Be honest but do not spend a lot of time in this area. Keep the focus on
this job and what You can do for this organization. Anything else is a
distraction.

7. What kind of salary do you need?
A loaded question. A nasty little game that you will probably lose if
you answer first. So, do Not answer it. Instead, say something like,
that’s a tough question. Can you tell me the Range for this position?
In most cases, the interviewer, taken off guard, will tell you. If not,
Say that it can depend on the details of the job. Then give a wide range.

8. Tell me about your dream job.
Stay away from a specific job. You cannot win. If you say the job
you are contending for is it, you strain credibility. If you say another
job is it,you plant the suspicion that you will be Dissatisfied with this
position if hired. The best is to stay genetic and say something like:
A Job where I love the work, like the people, can contribute and can't
wait to get to work.

9. Describe your management style.
Try to avoid labels. Some of the more common labels, like progressive,
salesman orConsensus can have several meanings or descriptions
depending on which management Expert you listen to. The situational
style is safe, because it says you will manage according To the situation,
instead of one size fits all.

10. Why should we hire you?
Point out how your assets meet what the organization needs. Do not
mention any other Candidates to make a comparison.

computer articles: Apple iPod Hi-Fi

computer articles: Apple iPod Hi-Fi

Earn Money For Your Articles.

Pay Per Post Programs:

Hallow bloggers are you ready to earn more money from your site. Do you know about pay per post? If you don’t know. Don’t worry at all. Pay per post programs started last year. You may write a blog post about a sponsor's website that like ads. The paid blog post can be a review or an introduction on the advertiser's website, products or services. The blogger will be paid a least $5 for each sponsor post.

Please consider the following:

1.Blogs that have massive traffic
2.High Google CPR
3.Large number of subscribers

You may participated honestly definitely you earn up to 500$ per post.


What is pay per post?

PayPerPost operates the largest sponsored content marketplace in the world. We help bloggers get paid for creating and publishing advertiser sponsored content. We invented the model and have helped Advertisers and Bloggers (known as "Posties" in our marketplace) successfully complete more than one hundred thousand transactions. Our network is comprised of tens of thousands of bloggers, from leisure bloggers to professionals that make a living on their blog.

The PayPerPost marketplace is self-serve and easy to use. You create an account in our system by providing some basic information and your blog URL. You are here to make money so a valid TAX ID (either social security number for individuals or an EIN for companies) is required for US citizens.

Advertisers create "Opportunities" for bloggers to write about their products, services and websites. They range from $5 to several thousands of dollars, depending on the criteria set by the advertiser. Bloggers with high amounts of traffic can expect to earn a significant amount of money for each post they create on behalf of an advertiser.


How the pay per post works?

Be Honest with Yourself and Your Readers:

Subject to the agreement you form with an advertiser, you are free to write or say whatever you want. PayPerPost itself has no restrictions on how you express your genuine thoughts on an advertiser's product or service. It's up to you to pick the Opportunities that best suit you and your blog. If it doesn't feel right, if you don't own the product or if you can't be honest we ask you to pass on the Opportunity. Dishonest or completely off-topic posts can ultimately hurt your blog's credibility. We strongly encourage you to only take opportunities that relate to you and to alert us if an advertiser ever suggests that you be dishonest.

Courtesy:
Are you ready to earn money?get start now click below:
http://www.payperpost.com/

Human memory

Human memory the term memory implies the capacity to encode, store, and Retrieve information. When human see, sense & hear, that can store in part of human body that is Brain.

MEMORY is the process by which what is learned can be retained in storage with the possibility of drawing on it later. Most of what humans know about the world is not built into the brain at the time of birth but is acquired through experience. It is learned, stored in the brain as memory, and is available later to be retrieved.


The brain is highly specialized and differentiated, organized so that different regions of neocortex simultaneously carry out computations on separate features of the external world (e.g., the analysis of form, color, and movement).Memory of a specific event, or even memory of something so apparently simple as a single object, is thought to be stored in a distributed fashion, essentially in component parts. These components are stored in the same neural systems in neocortex that ordinarily participate in the processing and analysis of what is to be remembered. In one sense, memory is the persistence of perception. It is stored as outcomes of perceptual operations and in the same cortical regions that are ordinarily involved in the processing of the items and events that are to be remembered.

One fundamental distinction in the neuropsychology of memory separates immediate memory from long-term memory. Indeed, this is the distinction that is revealed by the facts of human amnesia. In addition, a number of distinctions can be made within long-term memory. Memory is not a unitary mental faculty but depends on the operation of several separate systems that operate in parallel to record the effects of experience. The major distinction is between the capacity for conscious recollection about facts and events (so-called declarative or explicit memory) and a collection of non conscious memory abilities (so-called no declarative or implicit Emory), whereby memory is expressed through performance without any necessary conscious memory content or even the experience that memory is being used.

EARN MONEY THROUGH ADSENSE

Today advertisement is main think to market the products.


You DO NOT have to buy or sell anything.
You DO NOT require any expert skills.
You DO NOT have to meet any target or deadline
You DO NOT have to meet anybody.
You DO NOT need to have or visit any office

We will give opportunity in the World Wide Web to satisfy your dreams.

What is adsense?

Adsense is a one of the googles marketing term. Google Adsense is a fast and easy way for website publishers of all sizes to display relevant, unobtrusive Google ads on their website's content pages and earn money. Because the ads are related to what your users are looking for on your site, you'll finally have a way to both monetize and enhance your content pages.


Google provides ads in three kinds of formats,

Adsense for content
The ads are related to what your users are looking for on your site, you'll finally have a way to both monetize and enhance your content pages

Adsense for search
It's also a way for web site publishers to provide Google search to their site users, and to earn money by displaying Google ads on the search results pages.

Referral ads
The image and animation ad attracts the users.


What is the use of these ads to me?
It’s amazing. But true. When user clicks on these ads Google gives money to you. There are to basics followed by goggle.

Pay-per-click

pay-per-impression

What is the use to Google?

Google is an intermediate. It receives ads form the advertisers and then advertise it through our website. When user clicks on that ads then the advertisers given certain amount of money to Google then Google will give certain percentage of commission amount to we.

What are the steps to be followed for adsense?

1. Create your own blog (or) website. The contents must be unique one and also satisfy the adsense program policies. The free web hosting sites are,

http://www.pages.google.com/
http://www.ripway.com/
http://www.tripod.com/
http://www.50webs.com/
http://www.cjb.net/

2. signup into Google adsense website for your registration. The site name is,

http://www.adsense.com/


3. After getting adsense account copy the ad code given by the google into your site. Start displaying ads.

4. Increase your page impressions and click through Rate. Get More Money.



ALL THE BEST.

How to Earn Money from Your Blogging

1) Advertising program (cost per click):

There is two money making programs provide you a very good earnings. It is accepts all kind of blogging web sites, you may earn up to 3$ per day this cost will rise when your blogging become more traffic.

I) First one is Google adsense, world’s famous advertising programs providers.
More about adsense click below Google adsense http://www.google.com/adsense
II) Second one is yahoo publisher network it is alternative of adsense.
More about yahoo
http://publisher.yahoo.com/

Some tips for your blogging:
· create your articles in recent trends and unique contents
· Please avoid copy paste page content.
· Update your blog in every week (or) day


I) If you want to create a blog please click here
www.blogspot.com
II) If you want to create a web page click here www.pages.google.com


How to increase your traffic click here:
http://www.myarticles2008.blogspot.com/2008/06/how-to-increase-your-site-traffic.html

How to Increase Your Site Traffic

I.Articles:
Submit your articles for recent trends, top keywords search by the people, the quality articles may increase your traffic automatically write articles related to your blog name.

For example
The name of the blog is computerarticles.blogspot.com
Your articles may relate to computers, peripherals, advanced technology, etc….

II.Blogs comments are must!

You need increase your blog traffic another alternative is write comments on others blog site. Add little bit information’s about your site. Lot web seekers easy to identify your blogs.

Please visit blogs search engine
http://www.blogsearchengine.com/
www.goole.com/blogsearch


III.Post multiple Times:

Every week you should be post more then 6 posts that articles follows the first on characteristics. This is easy way to attract other readers.


IV.Member on community forums:

Every blogers must join the community forums, write about your blog. Participating in discussions ask any question with your website link.


V.Add Links:

You should be adding some popular website links in your site. Also back links is allowable.


VI.Others:
You can run a competitions on your blogs, may be current news will display on your blogs

My Articles POEM

Tree

Under the green wood tree
Who loves to lie with me?
And turn his merry note
Unto the sweet bird’s throat,
Come hither, come hither, come hither;
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.
Who doth ambition shun,
And loves to live I’ the sun,
Seeking the food he eats,
And pleased with what he gets,
Come hither, come hither, come hither;
Here shall he see
No enemy
But winter and rough weather.

- William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is a great playwright and poet, he has written a number of plays and poems. He has also written 154 sonnets. Here in this poem, he invites us to be friendly with nature where there is always joy and harmony and no enmity. This is taken from “as you like it”.

***********************************************************************************
The Bridge Builder

An old man, going a long highway,
Came, at the evening, cold and gray,
To a chasm, vast, and deep ,and wide,
Through which was flowing a sullen tide.
The old man crossed in the twilight dim;
The sullen stream had no fears for him;
But he turned, when safe on the other side,
And built a bridge to span the tide.
“old man,” said a fellow pilgrim, near,
“you are wasting strength with building here;
your journey will end with the ending day;
you never again must pass this way;
you have crossed the chasm, deep and wide-
why build you the bridge at the eventide?”

The builder lifted his old gray head:
“Good friend, in the path I have come,” he said,
“there followeth after me today
A youth, whose feed must pass this way.
This chasm that has been naught to me,
To that fair-haired youth may a pitfall be.
He, too must cross in the twilight dim;
Good friend, I am building the bridge for him.”

-will Allen Dromgoole
will allen dromgoole(1860-1934), was born in Tennessee. She had published thirteen books,7500 poems and 5,000 columns of essays, making her one of the most prolific of Tennessee writers.)

***********************************************************************************

I CANNOT REMEMBER MY MOTHER

I cannot remember my mother
Only sometimes in the midst of my play
A tune seems to hover over my playthings,
The tune of some song that she used to
Hum while rocking my cradle.
I cannot remember my mother
But when in the early autumn morning
The smell of the shiuli flowers floats in the air
The sent of the morning service in the temple
Comes to me as the scent of my mother.
I cannot remember my mother
Only when from my bedroom window I send
My eyes into the blue of the distant sky,
I feel that the gaze on my face
Has spread all over the sky
-Rbindranath Tagore.

Rabindarnath Tagore ,popularly known as gurudev(1861-1941) was a Bengali poet, dramatist and novelist. Tagore won the nobel prize for literature for his work, gitanjali. He founded the ‘shanthiniketan’ to promote Indian culture. This poem ‘ I ‘I can’t remember my mother ‘ is about a child who does not remember his dead mother .but the child perhaps carries some associations of the mother’s image in his mind.

***********************************************************************************

THE MOON

The moon has a face like the clock in the hall;
She shines on thieves on the garden wall,
On street and fields and harbour quays,
And birdies asleep in the forks of the tree.
The squalling cat and the squeaking mouse,
The howling dog by the door of the house,
The bat that lies in bed at noon,
All love to be out by the light of moon.
But all of the things that belongs to the day
Cuddle to sleep to be out of her way;
And flowers and children close their eyes
Till up in the morning the sun shall rise.
- Robert Louies Stevenson


Robert Louies Stevenson was born on the 13th of November 1850 at Edinburgh. He had shown a desire to write early in life. he is best known for his adventure stories. Two of his works are ‘Treasure Island ‘and Kidnapped’. He has also written a few collections of verses.

***********************************************************************************


A DOG IS A DOG

Now dogs pretend they like to fight;
They often bark, more seldom bite;
But yet a dog is, on the whole,
What you would call a simple soul.
Of course I’m not including pekes,
And such fantastic canine freaks.
The usual dog about the town
Is much inclined to play the clown
And far from showing too much pride
Is frequently undignified.
He’s very easily taken in-
Just chuck him underneath the chin
Or slap his back or shake his paw,
And he will gambol and guffaw.
He’s such an easy-going lout,
He’ll answer any or shout.
Again I must remind you that
A Dog’s a Dog-A CAT’S ACAT.

-T S ELIOT
Thomas Stearns Eliot (1988-1965), a leading poet and dramatist wrote many plays and poems. His masterpiece is ‘the wasteland’.

***********************************************************************************

GIVE ME THE STRENGTH

This is my prayer to thee , my lord-
Strike , strike at the root of penury in my heart.
Give me the strength lightly to bear my joys and sorrows.
Give me the strength to make my love fruitful in service.
Give me the strength never to disown the poor or bend my knees before insolent might.
Give me the strength to raise my mind high above daily trifles.
And Give me the strength to surrender my strength to thy will with love.

-Rabindranath Tagore.

Rabindarnath Tagore ,popularly known as gurudev(1861-1941) was a Bengali poet, dramatist and novelist. Tagore won the nobel prize for literature for his work, gitanjali. He founded the ‘shanthiniketan’ to promote Indian culture. This poem ‘ I ‘I can’t remember my mother ‘ is about a child who does not remember his dead mother .but the child perhaps carries some associations of the mother’s image in his mind.

***********************************************************************************

THE BLIND BOY

Say what is that thing call’d light,
Which I must ne’er enjoy;
What are the blessing of the sight,
O tell your poor blind boy!

You talk of wondrous things you see,
You say the sun shines bright;
I feel him warm , but how can he
Or make it day or night?
My day or night myself I make.
Whene’er I sleep or play;
And could I ever keep awake
With me twere always day

With heavy sighs I often hear
You mourn my hapless woe;
But sure with patience I can bear
A loss I ne’er can now.

Then let not what I cannot have
My cheer of mind destroy:
Whilst thus I sing , I am a king,
Although a poor blind boy.

-Colley Cibber

Colley Cibber(1971-1757),English actor, dramatist and poet laureate distinguished himself by an aptitude for writing verse even as a boy . he has written a number of plays, mostly sentimental comedies.

***********************************************************************************

wonder of india multimedia!

The Great Dynasties with multimedia presentation
The Great DynastiesBy 6th century BC, the Magadh rulers dominated the Northern plains. It was also the time when new thinking emerged in the form of Buddhism and Jainism to challenge Hindu orthodoxy. The Magadh rule was followed by the rule of Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.), one of India's greatest emperors. The Mauryan reign peaked under the reign of Ashoka the Great who extended his empire from the Kashmir and Peshawar in the North to Mysore in the South and Orissa in the East. Not only was Ashoka a great ruler, he was one of the most successful propagators of Buddhism in the country. After Ashoka's death in 232 B.C. the empire began to disintegrate and the country was repeatedly raided and plundered by foreign invaders, leaving India disunited and weak for the next 400 years. Stability returned with the reign of Chandra Gupta I (380-412 A.D.). His rule is considered the golden period in Indian history when art and culture flourished and the country prospered.
Unlike the North of India, foreign invasions had little impact on life in South India which also saw the rise and decline of many empires. These included the Cholas whose rule extended to Sri Lanka and South East Asia, the Pandyas, the Cheras, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. Under the various rulers, arts and craft in the South also saw the emergence of various styles of architecture and some of the grandest architectural accomplishments in the South - the most famous being the exquisitely crafted Chola bronzes. These were followed by the Hoysala and the Vijaynagar empires - among the greatest Hindu empires.
India is a subcontinent with many layers of history and culture. Each region in India has its own unique history and traditions. The different linguistic and ethnic groups from the various states of India come together like multicoloured threads to create the fabric of a unified country. Every cultural strand is woven together to create a vibrant tapestry of colourful India.
India's cultural heritage can be seen in its grand monuments built by various rulers in different periods of time. On your India travel itinerary you can see forts, palaces, temples, mosques, tombs, stupas, gurudwaras, cave paintings and exquisite sculpture and carvings.India has a range of marvellous monuments - the best known of which is the mesmerizing Taj Mahal in Agra. The grand monuments of the Mughals in Delhi, such as the Qutab Minar, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid and Humayun's Tomb are historic sights made of red sandstone and marble and are stunning examples of the Indo Islamic style of Architecture Agra, the imperial capital of the Mughals, with the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, and Akbar's tomb at Sikandra is a treasure trove for a historian or student of Mughal architecture on a cultural tour of India.
The cities of Rajasthan are known for their magnificent palaces and forts. Built by the rulers of princely states the grand buildings including the Amer Fort, city palace and Jantar Mantar (astronomical instruments) in Jaipur, the Jaisalmer Fort in Jaisalmer, the Mehrangarh Fort and the Umaid Bhawan Palace in Jodhpur and the fabulous lake palaces in lake Pichola in Udaipur, are all worth seeing on your India travel itinerary when you take a cultural tour of India.

Lakshadweep The islands look like emeralds in the vast expanse of blue sea. Varying hues of urquoise blue translucent water surround them. Coral atolls, the matchless marine environment with myriad colours resulting in complex interaction of animate and inanimate things. Built on ancient volcanic formations are the Lakshadweep (meaning a hundred thousand islands), the tiniest Union Territory of India. It consists of 12 atolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks. The atolls poised on submarine banks, harbour 36 islands having an area of 32 Sq.Km. Of these, 10 islands are inhabited namely Agatti, Amini, Andrott, Bitra, Chetlat, Kadmat, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Kiltan and Minicoy. The islands lie about 220-440 Kms from the Malabar coast between 8° and 12° 13' North Latitude and 71° & 74° East Longitude. Kavaratti is the Administrative Headquarter of the Union Territory.Each island is fringed by snowwhite coral sands, are marked by a huge, shallow, calm lagoon on one side which separate it from incoming swells of the outer sea by the fort wall-reef made of massive coral boulders and live corals. The only coral islands of our country, are the result of gradual assimilation of calcium from the water by corals and their turning into reefs.
Andaman & Niccobar Palm leaves dancing in the mild breeze, powder white beaches, the sound of waves breaking on a coral reef, lush, green rain forests and chirping rare birds-this is what the Andaman and Nicobar Islands essentially are. An archipelago of islands, islets and rocks, this Union Territory of India is home to some of the oldest tribes in the country. Though facilities for trekking, diving and snorkelling are available here, the best way to enjoy a trip to these islands is simply relax by the sea.

Cricket Of India with multimedia!

The game cricket is religion of india! heart beat of every youth! here some details about history of cricket in india.....The game of cricket was introduced in India in the middle of the 18th century. On 3rd March 1845 the ‘Sporting Intelligence’ magazine carried a reasonably lengthy match report between ‘Sepoy’ cricketers and the European ones. The article clearly proved that Indian cricket was underway in a city called Sylhet, in modern day Bangladesh. An impressed reporter proudly stated “the most enthusiastic European Cricketers could not have played with

more energy and cheerfulness than the Sepoys did”. However, chroniclers of cricket unanimously suggest that the formation of ‘Parsi Oriental Cricket Club’ in Bombay in the year 1848 led to the start of organized cricket by the Indians.

forces of india

child labours

Sleep

Sleep is a nature activity of humans is also behavioral sense some body called god’s gift but here we know some scientific terms of sleep.

Sleep is a behavioral adaptation of vertebrate animals with much to teach the cognitive scientist about the relationship of mind to brain. In no other behavioral state are the differences from waking psychology so profound or so clearly tied to the underlying changes in neurophysiology. It is this psycho physiological concomitance that will be emphasized in the account given here of the natural history and neurobiology of sleep.

As a behavior, sleep is characterized by
(1) a recumbent posture with varying degrees of relaxation of the skeletal musculature;
(2) an increase in the threshold of response to sensory stimuli; and
(3) a characteristic set of electrographic signs.

From an evolutionary point of view sleep is clearly a strategy for energy conservation and for protection from predators since all animals sleep attimes and in places that confer a benefit in one or both of these domains. Sleep is distinguished from simple rest, from torpor, and from anesthetics or traumatic unresponsiveness by its active and distinctive brain mechanisms of induction and maintenance, as well as by its ready reversibility.

Here u sees the type of sleep of humans and sensitive wave of every sleep:

The following diagram is REM cells of sleeping systems

Reciprocal Interaction. (A) Structural model. REM-on cells of the pontine reticular formation are cholino ceptively excited and/or cholinergic ally excitatory (ACH+) at their synaptic endings (open boxes). Pontine REM-off cells are noradrenergic ally (NE) or serotonergically (5HT) inhibitory (–) at their synapses (filled boxes). (B) Dynamic model. During waking the pontine aminergic (filled box) system is tonic ally activated and inhibits the pontine cholinergic (open box) system. During NREM sleep aminergic inhibition gradually wanes and cholinergic excitation reciprocally waxes. At REM sleep onset aminergic inhibition is shut off and cholinergic excitation reaches its high point. (C) Activation level (A). As a consequence of the interplay of the neuronal systems shown in A and B, the net activation level of the brain (A) is at equally high levels in waking and REM sleep and at about half this peak level in NREM sleep.

Emotion

An emotion is a psychological state or process that functions in the management of goals. It is typically elicited by evaluating an event as relevant to a goal; it is positive when the goal is advanced, negative when the goal is impeded. The core of an emotion is readiness to act in a certain way it is an urgency, or prioritization, of some goals and plans rather than others. Emotions can interrupt ongoing action; also they prioritize certain kinds of social interaction, prompting, for instance, COOPERATION or conflict.

The term emotional is often used synonymously with the term affective. Emotions proper usually have a clear relation to whatever elicited them. They are often associated with brief (lasting a few seconds) expressions of face and voice, and with perturbation of the autonomic nervous system. Such manifestations often go unnoticed by the person who has the emotion. A consciously recognized emotion

Lasts minutes or hours. A mood has similar bases to an emotion but lasts longer; whereas an emotion tends to change the course of action, a mood tends to resist disruption. At the longer end of the time spectrum, an emotional disorder, usually defined as a protracted mood plus specific symptoms, lasts from weeks to years. Personality traits, most with an emotional basis, last for years or a lifetime.

In the ordinary world there are three large problems for orchestrating cognitively Based action.

1. Mental models are always incomplete and sometimes incorrect; resources of time and power are always limited.
2. Human beings typically have multiple goals, not all of which can be reconciled.
3. Human beings are those agents who accomplish together what they cannot do alone; hence individual

Goals and plans are typically parts of distributed cognitive systems.

(some terms referred on Keith Oatley)

Perform Your Own Automobile Maintenance

Today's cars can typically be expected to pass the 200,000 mile mark with consistent automobile maintenance. With the price of automobiles, you will want to protect that investment by performing regular maintenance. If you can do much of the work yourself, you will save a lot of money in labor. Invest in a good set of tools and choose quality parts when performing your own automobile maintenance.

If you have some skill, but want to learn more look for courses in general repairs and maintenance. These can often be found at your local community center, Community College or an automotive technical school in your area. Consider investing in a good repair manual for your car, such as a Chilton's manual. The internet is a good place to look for articles and information. There are many sites devoted to auto repair and maintenance.

You will want to keep track of all maintenance performed on your car. You can do this in a log, a notebook or on your home computer. There is software available to help you keep track of maintenance. These programs track repairs, maintenance, replacement parts used on the vehicle and fuel consumption. You can use the same software for multiple vehicles.
Most software allows you to create a service schedule and will remind you when it's time to perform maintenance tasks on each vehicle in your household. The software contains a wide variety of tips for car care. In addition, many have reference and diagnostic tools to help you diagnose various problems with your cars. Many companies offer a free trial that can be downloaded on the internet. This allows you to try out the program before investing your money.

Your owner's manual will give you some basic information about when certain maintenance tasks should be done. Most tasks will be listed according to the mileage on the car.
3000 Mile Maintenance Change the oil in your engine every 3000 miles. The filter should be changed at the same time. Newer synthetic oils are said to last longer without breaking down. When you change the oil, check the fluids, the air filter, tires, hoses and belts. At this time check the battery cables and terminals for corrosion. This can be removed with a wire brush or sandpaper.

5000-10,000 Miles:

Have your tires rotated and balanced every five to ten thousand miles. This helps the tires wear evenly and extends the life. The best tires should be put in the front of the car. Check the tire pressure regularly and check the tread for signs of uneven wear or damage.

15,000 Miles:

Change the air filter every 15,000 miles. A clean air filter improves the fuel economy of your car. A dirty air filter can cause the engine to run rough and stall. At this time you should also check the pads and shoes on your brake system. Check the brake fluid and top it of, as needed. The fluid should be clear. If you notice noise when the brakes are applied or the steering wheel shakes or vibrates, this can be an indication that the brakes need replacing. In this case, don't wait check the brakes and replace as needed.

30,000 Miles:

Check the fluid level on your transmission. The owner's manual will have information about the kind of fluid that should be used in your car. The manual should have directions on how to drain and replace the fluid. The pan gasket should be changed when the fluid is drained. Also at this time, give the car a tune up. Replace all spark plugs and wires.

50,000 Miles:

Change the coolant at 50,000 miles. See the owner's manual for directions on how to perform this task.

Remember to take care of your car's finish. You want the paint to remain in good condition for as long as possible. Wash the car regularly, even in the winter when salt from the roads can ruin the finish. Apply wax to protect the paint from the sun, salt and weather conditions. Don't neglect the headlights, which can become cloudy and won't operate as well. New Lite Headlight Cleaner and Restorer will return cloudy headlights to like new condition.

Learn more about this product at http://www.mdwholesale.com/

Story Board

AN ELEPHANTS LOYALTY:

Many years ago Alexander, the king of Macedonia, invaded India. at one stage, he was opposed by the huge army of king porus. Porus was six feet high and rode on the biggest elephant. The elephant bestowed the greatest care on its royal master. While it was still strong it defended him against his enemy. it repulsed the enemy attacks time after time. Porus was severely wounded by the arrows. He was about to faint. Seeing that the royal master might fall off from its back ,the elephant lowered itself to the ground. Then it gently extracted the arrows from the body of porus with its trunk. It was loyal to its last breath. Its valour and faithfulness deserve to be written in letters of gold.


AN OUTWITTED FOX:

A crow stole a piece of cake from a hawker. It perched on the branch of tree. Then it begins to eat the cake. a fox sitting under the tree coveted the cake. It addressed the crow thus:” my dear comrade, how pretty you are! You should be having a sweet voice also. Will you please treat me to a melodious song?” the crow knew that fox was after its cake. It was aware that one of its kith and kin fell a victim to the same pattern of trick played by another fox. It placed the cake carefully on the branch and cried caw, caw!’The fox was disappointed. Because it could not get the cake. The crow out written the fox.

Global warming

First we know about what is globalwarming is that increasing the level of heat on the earth surface.now we are ready to reduce the global warming. Major use of co2 is the main reason

ofincreasing global warming.the toal useage of co2 is follows.
Folowing diagram is increasing rate of co2 in atmosphere.

courtesy- wikipedia

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature in Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its projected continuation. The average global air temperature near the Earth's surface increased 0.74 + or - 0.18 ° C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the hundred years ending in 2005. The Intergovernmental PaneonClimate Change(IPCC) concludes "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-made) greenhouse gas concentrations" via the greenhouse effect Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.

These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least thirty scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC, the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main conclusions.

Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first century. This range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.

Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or revers future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
For more details www.wikipedia.org.

Communism:
Communism is the doctrine of the conditions of the liberation of the proletariat.

Proletariat:
The proletariat is that class in society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor -- hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.
[In their works written in later periods, Marx and Engels substituted the more accurate concepts of "sale of labour power", "value of labour power" and "price of labour power" (first introduced by Marx) for "sale of labour", value of labour" and "price of labour", as used here.]

Proletarians:
No. There have always been poor and working classes; and the working class have mostly been poor. But there have not always been workers and poor people living under conditions as they are today; in other words, there have not always been proletarians, any more than there has always been free unbridled competitions.

proletariat originate?
The Proletariat originated in the industrial revolution, which took place in England in the last half of the last (18th) century, and which has since then been repeated in all the civilized countries of the world.
This industrial revolution was precipitated by the discovery of the steam engine, various spinning machines, the mechanical loom, and a whole series of other mechanical devices. These machines, which were very expensive and hence could be bought only by big capitalists, altered the whole mode of production and displaced the former workers, because the machines turned out cheaper and better commodities than the workers could produce with their inefficient spinning wheels and handlooms. The machines delivered industry wholly into the hands of the big capitalists and rendered entirely worthless the meagre property of the workers (tools, looms, etc.). The result was that the capitalists soon had everything in their hands and nothing remained to the workers. This marked the introduction of the factory system into the textile industry.

Once the impulse to the introduction of machinery and the factory system had been given, this system spread quickly to all other branches of industry, especially cloth- and book-printing, pottery, and the metal industries.

Labor was more and more divided among the individual workers so that the worker who previously had done a complete piece of work now did only a part of that piece. This division of labor made it possible to produce things faster and cheaper. It reduced the activity of the individual worker to simple, endlessly repeated mechanical motions which could be performed not only as well but much better by a machine. In this way, all these industries fell, one after another, under the dominance of steam, machinery, and the factory system, just as spinning and weaving had already done.

But at the same time, they also fell into the hands of big capitalists, and their workers were deprived of whatever independence remained to them. Gradually, not only genuine manufacture but also handicrafts came within the province of the factory system as big capitalists increasingly displaced the small master craftsmen by setting up huge workshops, which saved many expenses and permitted an elaborate division of labor.

This is how it has come about that in civilized countries at the present time nearly all kinds of labor are performed in factories -- and, in nearly all branches of work, handicrafts and manufacture have been superseded. This process has, to an ever greater degree, ruined the old middle class, especially the small handicraftsmen; it has entirely transformed the condition of the workers; and two new classes have been created which are gradually swallowing up all the others. These are:

(i) The class of big capitalists, who, in all civilized countries, are already in almost exclusive possession of all the means of subsistance and of the instruments (machines, factories) and materials necessary for the production of the means of subsistence. This is the bourgeois class, or the bourgeoisie.

(ii) The class of the wholly propertyless, who are obliged to sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to get, in exchange, the means of subsistence for their support. This is called the class of proletarians, or the proletariat.

Labor is a commodity, like any other, and its price is therefore determined by exactly the same laws that apply to other commodities. In a regime of big industry or of free competition -- as we shall see, the two come to the same thing -- the price of a commodity is, on the average, always equal to its cost of production. Hence, the price of labor is also equal to the cost of production of labor.

But, the costs of production of labor consist of precisely the quantity of means of subsistence necessary to enable the worker to continue working, and to prevent the working class from dying out. The worker will therefore get no more for his labor than is necessary for this purpose; the price of labor, or the wage, will, in other words, be the lowest, the minimum, required for the maintenance of life.
However, since business is sometimes better and sometimes worse, it follows that the worker sometimes gets more and sometimes gets less for his commodities. But, again, just as the industrialist, on the average of good times and bad, gets no more and no less for his commodities than what they cost, similarly on the average the worker gets no more and no less than his minimum.

This economic law of wages operates the more strictly the greater the degree to which big industry has taken possession of all branches of production.

INDIAN HISTORY

Overview:

India's history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human civilization. Beginning with a mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India. The history of india is one puncuated by constant integration with migrating peoples and with the diverse cultures that surround India. Gateway Of India Placed in the center of Asia, history in india is a crossroads of cultures from China to Europe, and the most significant Asian connection with the cultures of Africa.
India's history is more than just a set of unique developments in a definable process; it is, in many ways, a microcosm of human history itself, a diversity of cultures all impinging on a great people and being reforged into new, syncretic forms. IndHistory.com brings you the india's history starting from ancient history of india to modern indian history. Shown below is the india timeline starting from 3000 BC of ancient indus valley civilization and harappa civilization to 1000 AD of Chola Dynasty of ancient history of india.

Indian History in Short :

The History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization in such sites as Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Lothal, and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic perio ds. It is in the Vedic period that Hinduism first arose: this is the time to which the Vedas are dated.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread to o ther parts of Asia. It is in the reign of the Mauryas that Hinduism took the shape that fundamentally informs the religion down to the present day. Successor states were more fragmented.

Indian history dates back to 3000 BC. Excavations in Punjab and Gujarat reveal that the Indus Valley civilisation was a highly developed urban civilisation. In fact the two cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro, situated on two sides of the river Ravi, are known to have been built on a similar plan. But that only meant a new wave of urbanisation was taking place along the Ganges around 1500 BC. This has been recorded in the Rig Veda - the earliest known literary source composed in this period that sheds light on India's past.

The Muslim Invasions :

The first Muslim invasions of the country started with the Mahmud of Gazni, who plundered the sub-continent for its riches between 1001 and 1025. Later Mohamed Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, the Tomar ruler of Delhi and left it in charge of his deputy, Qutub-ud-din, the man who built the Qutub Minar in Delhi. His rule was followed by that of the Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties. Known as the Sultanate of Delhi, it was during this period that the Muslim rulers introduced Islamic concepts of society and governance to most of the sub-continent, though the South remained largely untouched.

In 1525, Babur, a descendant of Timur, as well as Genghis Khan invaded Punjab and eventually founded the Mughal empire in India. His rule was followed by that of his son Humayun. Humayun was ousted by Afghan chieftain Sher Shah but resumed power after Sher Shah's death. Sher Shah is, however, remembered as the one to build the Grand Trunk road spanning from Peshawar to Howrah. Humayun's reign was followed up by his son Akbar who actually consolidated power and extended the empire across North India and parts of South India. One of India's wisest rulers and most able administrators, Akbar's reign is considered to be one of the best the country has known. Akbar was succeeded by Jahangir, followed by his son Shah Jahan - best known as the builder of the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the Jama Masjid. Shah Jahan's reign was followed by Aurangzeb's. The death of Aurangzeb saw the decline of the Mughal rule in India.

Towards Independence:

The disintegration of the Mughal empire, fighting among the Maratha rulers and inability of the various rulers across the country to unite against a common enemy saw the British consolidate their position in the country. However, the 19th century saw a revival of national pride and social reform and the Indians began to tire of the suppressive British rule. Things reached a flash point in the second half of the 19th century when the first war of independence in 1857 broke out in Meerut. It was sparked off by the introduction of a new rifle and cartridge by the British in the Army. The cartridges which soldiers had to bite off, allegedly contained pork and beef tallow, which offended the religious sentiments of both Hindus and Muslims. The soldiers rebelled, reached Delhi and proclaimed Bahadurshah Zafar the sovereign ruler of India. They were eventually overpowered by the British.

But there was no looking back for the Indians who wanted social reform and freedom. The Indian National Congress was set up and educated Indians started formulating strategies to assert their birthright to independence. The anti-British sentiment became a mass movement with the arrival of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who devised a unique strategy for India's freedom struggle based on non-violence and civil disobedience. He conceived and led the non-cooperation movement in 1922, the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942. All of which pushed the British into agreeing to transfer power on August 15, 1947, the day that is now celebrated as India's Independence Day. Today, India is the world's largest democracy with a federal form of government.

courtesy: incridible india! & history of india

HARD DISK

What Is a Hard Disk?

A hard disk or drive is the part of your computer responsible for long-term storage of
Information. Unlike volatile memory (often referred to as RAM) which loses it’s stored
Information once its power supply is shut off, a hard disk stores information permanently,
Allowing you to save programs, files, and other data. Hard disks also have much greater
Storage capacities than RAM; in fact, current hard disks may contain over 1TB of
Storage space.

Basic components of a Hard Disk

A hard disk is comprised of four basic parts: platters, a spindle, read/write heads, and
Integrated electronics.

• Platters are rigid disks made of metal or plastic. Both sides of each platter are
Covered with a thin layer of iron oxide or other magnetizable material.

• The platters are mounted on a central axle or spindle, which rotates all the platters at
The same speed.

• Read/write heads are mounted on arms that extend over both top and bottom
Surfaces of each disk. There is at least one read/write head for each side of each
Platter. The arms jointly move back and forth between the platters’ centers and
Outside edges; this movement, along with the platters’ rotation, allows the read/write
Heads to access all areas of the platters.

• The integrated electronics translate commands from the computer and move the
Read/write heads to specific areas of the platters, thus reading and/or writing the
Needed data.

How Is Data Stored and Retrieved?

Computers record data on hard disks as a series of binary bits. Each bit is stored as a
Magnetic charge (positive or negative) on the oxide coating of a disk platter. When a computer saves data; it sends the data to the hard disk as a series of bits. As the
Disk receives the bits, it uses the read/write heads to magnetically record or “write” the
Bits on the platters. Data bits are not necessarily stored in succession.

The read/write heads can access any area of the platters at any time, allowing data to be
Accessed randomly (rather than sequentially, as with a magnetic tape). Because hard disks
Are capable of random access, they can typically access any data within a few millionths
Of a second.

What Is Disk Formatting?

Computers must be able to access needed information on command; however, even the
Smallest hard disk can store millions and millions of bits. How does the computer know?
Where to look for the information it needs? To solve this problem, hard disks are
Organized into discrete, identifiable divisions, thus allowing the computer to easily find
Any particular sequence of bits.

The most basic form of disk organization is called formatting. Formatting prepares the
Hard disk so that files can be written to the platters and then quickly retrieved when
Needed. Hard disks must be formatted in two ways: physically and logically.

1.Physical Formatting :

A hard disk must be physically formatted before it can be logically formatted. A hard
Disk’s physical formatting (also called low-level formatting) is usually performed by the
Manufacturer. Physical formatting divides the hard disk’s platters into their basic physical elements: Tracks, sectors, and cylinders. See Figure 2. These elements define the way in which data Is physically recorded on and read from the disk.

2.Logical Formatting:

After a hard disk has been physically formatted, it must also be logically formatted.
Logical formatting places a file system on the disk, allowing an operating system (such as
DOS, OS/2, Windows, or Linux) to use the available disk space to store and retrieve files.
Different operating systems (OS) use different file systems, so the type of logical
formatting you apply depends on the OS you plan to install.

File Systems:

All file systems consist of structures necessary for storing and managing data. Some of the most common File systems are the following:
• File Allocation Table (FAT)
• File Allocation Table 32 (FAT32)
• New Technology File System (NTFS)
• High Performance File System (HPFS)
• NetWare File System
• Linux Ext2 and Linux Swap